Egon & Eduard Wojciulewicz
ESWO, Lint, Mortsel, Belgium

Looking for our 'roots', we discovered how fascinating history actually can be. Browsing through archives and  libraries , reading books and the desire to test acquired knowledge on site, convinced us to go and explore the Polish-Lithuanian territory.

We ourselves come from a region southeast of Vilnius. This land was without any doubt originally Lithuanian territory. History changed it partly into Polish,  and at last it came under Russian rules.  At the present time, it is again Lithuanian,  with a lot of people with Polish or Russian background. This is a fairly complicated situation,  which was not without some danger, in the first years of the recently regained independence.

The following historical overview may help to understand the present situation. We don't claim expertise nor completeness. Therefore we welcome any relevant additions or comments.

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Misschien leest u liever in het nederlands   

� Remains of the oldest known settlement (bronze age, 5 centuries b.C.) are found at Biskupin.� The people of Biskupin were agrarians and hunters.� There are traces of leatherworking and trading (amber).

In the second century, Ptolemy mentioned the city of Kalisz.

In the 10th century, Ibrahim Ibn Jacob described a solid economical and military organised nation within the present Polish borders. Archaeological evidence confirm the existence of this nation situated between Warta and Wisla (Vistula, Weichsel). South-eastwards, the principality of Kiev is born.

Legends and non-written sources mention� Piast, chief of the Polanes, who unites local chiefrains to a state. In succession of� Piast, the same legends mention Siemovit, Leszek, Siemomysl, and at last Mieszko.

Probably as a reaction on the expansion of the German Empire (Otto I), Mieszko I (Mieczyslaw, son of Siemomysl, ?-992) converted to Christianity in 966 and consolidated the independance of his country.

Cities like Gdansk, Poznan were already under his rule.Krak�w was at the time under Czech rule.

In Gniezno (1000), under Boleslaw I Chrobry (the Brave, 992-1025) a polish church province was founded, which was directly under papal authority (and so independent from the German Empire). With him Poland becomes a kingdom.

In Gniezno, the cathedral and a statue for Boleslaw Chrobry remember those very important events in Polish history.

1009.� First written reference to "Lithuania" in the 'Kvedlingburg Chronicles'.

After Boleslaw Chrobry we had Mieszko II (1025 tot 1034) and�Kazimierz I Odnowiciel (the Innovator, 1038-1058).� Kazimierz I relocated the Polish capital city from Gniezno to Krakow.

1076. Boleslaw II Smialy (the Bold, 1058-1079) came into conflict with the Bishop of Krakow, Stanislaw Szczepanowski, who accused the king of misconduct and riotous living. The bishop was convicted of high treason and was murdered on the king�s order. This, however, was a serious miscalculation on latter�s part that forced him to flee the country. His successor was Wladyslaw I Herman (1079 - 1102).

The bishop is later proclaimed the "patron saint of Poland" (Saint Stanislaw). He lies in state above the main altar of the Cathedral on the Wawel.

At the death in 1138 of king Boleslaw III Krzywousty (1102-1138), Poland consisted of Great Poland, Poland Minor, Mazowsze, Pomerania and Silesia (Slask).�� That is not far from actual Poland. In his testament, he divides the country amongst his sons. Only one acquires the seniorate (the crown + Krakow). This led however to a period of 150 years of disagreement� and decline.

In this period following leaders will rule the country (only the last two were kings):� Wladyslaw II (the exile, 1138-1146), Boleslaw IV (with curly hair, 1146-1173 ), Mieszko III (the righteous, 1173-1177), Kazimierz II (1177-1194), Leszek I (the white, 1194-1199), � Mieszko III (the old, 1199-1202), Wladyslaw III (spindle legs, 1202), Leszek I (1202-1227),� Wladyslaw III (spindle legs, 1228), Henryk I (with the beard, 1228-1229), � Konrad of Mazowie (1229-1232), Henryk I (1232-1238),� Henryk II (the god-fearing, 1238-1241),� Konrad van Mazowie�� (1241 - 1243), Boleslaw V (the pure, 1243-1279), Leszek II (the black, 1279-1288), Henryk IV (Probus,1288-1290), Przemysl II (1290-1291), Przemysl II (1295-1296)

To make things worse, Poland was attacked in 1241, 1259 and in 1287 by Tatar armies, which penetrated as far as Silesia.� During the first attack (1241) the city of Krakow was completely destroyed.

Legend has it that the guard, watching from upon the highest tower of the B.V.M. church on the town's Main Square, sounded the alarm (hejnal) to warn the citizens for the approaching danger. Before he was able to finish his task, he was struck by an arrow. The suddenly interrupted Hejnal is still repeated every hour from upon that same tower.

While disagreement and Tatars were ruling Poland, german knights conquered large parts of the present Baltic region.� In a reaction to this Mindaugas united local tribes between 1219 and 1236 and laid the foundation for the future state of Lithuania.� In 1251 he converted to christianity and became king by papal investiture. Twelve years later (1263) Mindaugas was murdered and christianity rejected. � The Grand-Dukes Treniota (1268-1270) and Traidenis (1270-1282)�did not succeed in preserving the country's unity.� At that time, Trakai was the most important city of the country.

After the death of Djengis Khan the Tartars withdrawed from Poland, and the country was left more than ever divided.

Jewish and German immigrants settled in Poland.� Germans mainly built and rebuilt cities such as Wroclaw (Breslau), in Poznan (Posen) and in Krakow (Krakow), etc.... These immigrants acquired a certain autonomy and more than once opposed against the Polish monarchy. Moreover they became economically very powerful.

German knights took possession of northern Polish regions (Pomerania) and Gdansk (Danzig, 1308).�� A confederation of german knighthood with semi-independent cities (the Hanze alliance) will control�great parts of the trade in the Baltic region until the end of the 16th century.�

Slask (Silesia) was lost to Bohemia.

To the east, the principality of Kiev, founded some centuries earlier, gradually lost power, whereas farther eastwards the principality of Moscow was born.

1290.Grand Duke Vytenis (1295-1316) re-united Lithuania. His successor and brother��� Gediminas (1316-1341) extended his power mainly at the expense of the principality of Kiev. (present Ukraine and Belorus).

1323. Gediminas founded the city of Vilnius, which from then on was called the capital city.� He invited merchants and landlords and adopted a tolerant attitude towards catholic as well as the orthodox people. His successor was Jaunutis (1341-1345).

In Vilnius on the main square in front of the cathedral at the bottom of the hill, where one can still see the ruins of his fortress, Gediminas received his statue.

Only Wladyslaw I Lokietek (the Short, 1306-1333) was able to re-unite the Polish Kingdom. He first served under Waclaw II (1300-1305) and then under Waclaw III (1305-1306).� Finally he was proclaimed king himself in 1320.

His son and successor Kazimierz III Wielki (1333-1370) gave priority to order and peace. He therefore gave up Pomerania and Silesia. He also endowed the aristocracy with a far-reaching autonomy, ended malpractice of robber barons, brought about a certain tolerance towards the German colonists, who in exchange submitted to the Polish judicial system, and he founded the university of Krakow. He also drew up the miner�s law for the workers in the salt mines. The economy grew (especially the textile industry), and poverty decreased.

In 1370 Kazimiers III Wielki died without a heir and the Piast-dynasty came to an end. Ludwig Wegerski (Louis of Anjou) succeeded him.

Algirdas (Olgierd, 1345-1377), son of Gediminas and successor of Jaunutis, defeated the Tatar armies at Podolia and occupied the entire basin of the Dnepr and the Dnestr. Kestutis, brother of Algirdas, kept the Germanic knights at a safe distance from Trakai.

Algirdas died in 1377.� His son Jogaila (Jagiello, 1377-1392) is the rightful heir.

Kestutis, brother of Algirdas however seized the power and proclaimed himself Grand Duke of Lithuania. In 1382 Jogaila overpowered his uncle Kestutis and his uncle's son Vytautas (Witold), and becomes at last Grand Duke. Kestutis died in prison but his son Vytautis was able to escape.

In reply to the continuous German threat, Jogaila considered an alliance with a growing orthodox Russia as well as an alliance with a Catholic Poland. � He choosed Poland over Russia.

1382.� Ludwig Wegerski (Louis van Anjou) died, handing over the Polish throne to his 8-year old daughter Jadwiga (1383-1399).

 

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De Jagiello-dynasty

In 1385 Poland and Lithuania founded an alliance in Krewo that led to the marriage in 1386 of the Grand Duke Jogaila of Lithuania with the queen of Poland Jadwiga.� Jogaila was converted to Christianity and was proclaimed king Wladislaw II Jagiello (1386-1434) of Poland-Lithuania. Two years later Lithuania followed the king�s example and accepted the christian religion. The Jagiello dynasty will govern the Polish-Lithuanian kingdom for the next 200 years.

Jadwiga, being a victim of marital politics, dissociated herself from state matters and concentrated on what we would call social matters. When she died in 1399 at the age of 25, she had become very popular. Later she was canonised by the Church. This also explains her white marble tomb, which is still covered by flowers at special occasion, in the Wawel Cathedral.

The cousins Wladyslaw Jagiello�(Jogaila) en� Vytautas (Witold) reconciled and Vytautas was appointed Grand Duke of Lithuania (from 1392 until 1430). He conquered all regions from the Ukraine to the Black Sea, making the Polish-Lithuanian kingdom the largest country in Europe.� A lot of diplomacy and tolerance had to be used, however, to control this vast land.

1401-1410. The Kingdom was almost permanently at war with the germanic knights. In 1410 a Polish-Lithuanian army, led by Wladislaw Jagiello and Vytautas the Great, defeated these knights at Grunwald (Tannenberg). The Germanic desire to conquer the East (Drang nach Osten) will stop for a while.

A statue for Wladyslaw Jagiello in front of the Barbakan at Krakow commemorates this victory.

In 1434 Wladyslaw Jagiello dies and was succeeded by his son Wladyslaw III Jagiello (Warnenczyk, 1434-1444). � Wladyslaw III died in a war against the Turkish empire.

In 1430 Vytautas died and was succeeded by Svitrigaila (1430-1432) who in his turn was succeeded by Zygmantas (1432-1440).� But when in 1440 Zigmantas died, there was no heir in the line of Vytautas. � It is prince Kazimierz Jagiello (also a son of Wladyslaw Jagiello) who became Grand Duke of Lithuania.�

Gradually, the Lithuanian language and culture disappeared from the daily life of the aristocracy in favour of the Polish language and culture.

In 1446 prince and grand duke Kazimierz Jagiello also became king Kazimierz IV Jagiello (1446-1492).� Kazimierz reconquered Pomorze and Gdansk from the german knights (1466, Peace of Torun), and conquered West Prussia. � East Prussia became a duchy, but under control of the Polish Monarchy.�

This subjection is immortalised through a painting that shows a grandmaster of the order of knighthood kneeling before the Polish King (Hold Pruskie, National Museum of Krakow). Hitler will later on give the order to destroy this painting at any cost. Without any success, however!

Poland-Lithuania became the most powerful nation of Central-Europe in that period. It stretched out from the Baltic Sea to the Black Sea and from Silesia until as far as the regions adjacent to Moscow. Not only Poles and Lithuanians inhabit this country. They have to share their country with the Tartars, Prussians, Bielorussians, Ukrainians and people from the Baltic regions. In this nation, Catholics, Lutherans, Jews, Muslims and members of the Orthodox Church all had to live together. It is during this period that Mikolaj Kopernik practised science and that Jan Kochanowski became famous for his literature.

In 1492 Jan I Olbracht (1492-1501) was proclaimed King of Poland-Lithuania. Aleksander Jagiello (1492-1506) became Great Duke of Lithuania and succeeded Jan I Olbracht as king in 1501.

In 1493 a parliament was formed in Poland-Lithuania under Jan Olbracht�s rule. In 1505, under the command of Aleksander Jagiello, a constitution was written, which clearly stated that decisions could no longer be taken without the approval of the members of parliament.

Zygmunt I (the Old, 1506-1548) succeeds Aleksander as duke and as king. He, for his part, was succeeded by Zygmunt II August (1548-1572). From that moment in time, the King of Poland was also, at the same time, Grand Duke of Lithuania.�

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The Rzeczpospolita

King Zygmunt August transferred many Lithuanian territories� to Poland (Podlesie, Volynia, Kievan Rus),� and in 1569 he succeeded formally to make one integrated nation of the Polish-Lithuanian federation.��

In 1569, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was founded at Lublin. The power of the aristocracy had become so important, that Poland-Lithuania had changed into a kind of �aristo-democracy� governed by a parliament (Sejm) and an elected king. This form of government is called the Rzeczpospolita. This parliament guaranteed a religious equality between the Catholics, Muslims, Jews, Protestants and members of the Orthodox Church. Every member of the aristocracy (about 12% of the population) had the right to vote for parliament. The Polish language became the state language. The Lithuanian language, however, survived thanks to its use by a big part of illiterates and serfs.

There was strong opposition from Lithuanian nobles to the Union with Poland.� Grzegorz Chodkiewicz considered breaking it by force, and the Lithuanian delegation was led by Jan Chodkiewicz (nephew of Grzegorz), who insisted in a long impassioned speech on the equality and independence of the two nations. In practice the Act of Union was never rigorously enforced, as Lithuania retained its own government and laws until the end of the joint state in 1795.�

After almost 200 years, the Jagiello-dynasty ended in 1572 with the death of Zygmunt II August.

He owned the collection of Flemish tapestry, which you can still admire at the Royal Chambers in the Wawel castle. In 1573, the first elected king, Henri de Valois (1573-1575), succeeded him, but disappeared after a few months to become king of France.

In 1575 Stefan Batory (1575-1586) was elected king. He stimulated overseas trade and founded the University of Wilno (Vilnius). From 1579 until 1582, Russia, led by Ivan the Terrible, attacked Livonia (present Latvia and Estonia) while searching for a passage to the Baltic Coast. After the war, the Baltic region was more or less split up and handed over to the Rzeczpospolita and Sweden. Moscow did not acquire its passage (yet).

Stefan Batory died in 1586 and Zygmunt III Vasa (1587-1632), a Swedish crown prince, succeeded him. It is under his rule that the Orthodox Church recognised the authority of the Pope. This church, preserving its Greek rites, is called the Greek Catholic Church,� (1596: Union of Brzesc-Litowsk). Around the turn of the century, Zygmunt III relocates the capital city from Krakow to Warsaw.

Jan Karol Chodkiewicz

In the 17th century, the Rzeczpospolita became mixed up in a series of wars against Sweden, Turkey and Russia, and was only able to resist thanks to a lot of military experience and competent generals. For example: Jan Karol Chodkiewicz, Jan Zamoyski, Stanislaw Koniecpolski and Stanislaw Zolkiewski and their victories at Salaspils or Kircholm in 1605, at Kluszyn in 1610 and at Chocim in 1612. In 1629, the Rzeczpospolita was forced to leave its territories around Riga (present Latvia and southern Estonia) to Sweden.

During one of these wars, the Swedish armed forces penetrated as far as Czestochowa in Central-Poland. Legend has it that their luck turned in this village thanks to the miraculous interference of the Black Madonna, an icon still preserved in a local monastery. Czestochowa has been a famous place of pilgrimage ever since.

Wladyslaw IV�Vasa (1632-1648).

Jan II Kazimierz�Vasa (1648-1668).�

In 1652, the �Liberum Veto� was used (or abused) for the first time. This �perfect� democratic principle will soon turn out to be a powerful weapon controlled by the country�s enemies.

From 1654 until 1667, wars against Russia and Sweden were sweeping the country. The Russians set the Cossacks against the Rzeczpospolita. As a result, the Rzeczpospolita� lost the Southeast (the present Ukraine) to Russia.

During Michael Korybut�s (1669-1673) short period of government, the Turks invaded the Rzeczpospolita� and occupied Podholia and the territories to the south of Kiev. Their goal was to penetrate as far as possible into Europe. In 1673, however, Jan Sobieski stopped them at Chocim. Later hetman Jan Sobieski was elected King Jan III Sobieski (1674-1696). When the Turk tried to invade Central-Europe again nine years later, via Hungary and Austria, it was again Jan Sobieski who came to the rescue and defeated them in Vienna. He became very popular and famous. At Wilanow, near Warsaw, his prestigious summer residence was built.

The end of the Rzeczpospolita

The form of government, in which a king is elected, worked well until the end of the18th century, and granted an extensive individual freedom to the aristocracy. A candidate-king had to win the voters� favour and the decision of parliament had to be unanimous (liberum veto). This meant in fact that every member of the Sejm (parliament) had the right of veto. This complicated a fair and respectable administration.� The mechanism of decline was inherent in the rzeczpospolita.

More over, the neighbouring countries, Prussia, Austria and Russia, had developed into big states governed by very powerful kings or emperors.

1618. Prussia was united with Brandenburg (near Berlin) through marriage.� 1660. The Rzeczpospolita selled the Prussian sovereignty to Brandenburg. Prussia was transformed into a kingdom in 1701 and developed into an armed and powerful state ruled by Frederic the Great. This kingdom continued to grow and became an empire under the rule of Wilhelm I.

During the great northern war (1700-1721) Peter the Great of Russia drives away the Swedes� from the northern Baltic regions and finally acquired the Russians long desired passage to the Baltic Sea. In conformity with a western model he carried out radical reforms.

Austria-Hungary is formed without any significant contact with the Rzeczpospolita.

These enlightened despots can easily influence the decision making of the Polish-Lithuanian Sejm (buying one vote is enough!). Especially Russia and Prussia are very interested in large parts of the Polish-Lithuanian territory. They wanted polish kings that can be manipulated.

August II (Saxon, 1697-1704) formed a Russian alliance against Sweden. Russia was still looking for a way to control the Baltic Coast. But Sweden�s victory forced August to make way for Stanislaw I Leszczynski (1704-1709). When Russia (ruled by Peter the Great) succeeded in defeating the Swedish army in 1709, August returned and reclaimed the Polish Throne.� In 1717 the king requested Russia to act as a mediator in a dispute between him and the members of the Sejm. This mediation , however, led to the loss of a certain autonomy.

In 1732, Russia, Prussia and Austria entered into a secret agreement to render Poland ungovernable. This alliance was called the Alliance of the Three Black Eagles.

August II died in 1733 and again Stanislaw I Leszczynski (1733-1736) succeeded him. But Russia took military actions and declared the elections invalid. They wanted Frederic August III (Saxon, 1736-1763) on the throne and so he won the second elections.

The Saxon rule, from 1697 until 1763, was a national disaster and brought the country on the verge of anarchy. In 1763 Stanislaw August Poniatowski is elected king of a country whose parliament is without any power. Some say that he, former lover of Katharine II, was only a puppet controlled by the Russian Tsarina. It is he, however, who understanded the dangerous situation of his country and who devoted his time to abolish the veto right and to establish a hereditary monarchy. Only a strong central administration can, according to him, resist the threatening neighbouring countries.

At the palace in Warsaw there�s a painting showing Stanislaw August looking at the future with a sandglass in his hand: Time is running out!

An anti-Russian rebellion, the �Confederate of Bar�, brought no results between 1768 and 1772. A lot of members of the aristocracy were deportated to Siberia.

1772. The first division
The neighbouring countries did not appreciate the announced reforms. Russia took over the eastern border provinces westerly from Smolensk and northerly from Kiev. Austria occupied Galicia and Prussia took over the region between Gniezno and the north coast, connecting his two parts. The polish Sejm wasn�t able to react to this situation and was forced to legalise these border-shifts.

1789. The country suddenly recognised the real situation. In 1773 the National Education Committee is founded to develope education and to build schools. The Sejm transformed into a constitutional assembly, which will deposit a constitution 2 years later (4 month before the French constitution). The veto right is abolished and replace by a majority rule.� A constitutional monarchy is formed. Citizens also will be represented in the Sejm.

1793 Second Division
In 1792, some magnates, such as Branicki, Potocki and Rzewuski, opponents of the new constitution, formed the Confederation of Targowica and called on the Russians for help. Russia took over the entire East-Polish territory, consisting of the regions situated near Minsk and Westwards of Kiev. The resistance under the command of Josef Poniatowski, the king�s nephew, and Tadeusz Kosciuszko, a veteran of the American Revolutionary War, stood no chance, especially when after a little while Prussia took over the regions near Poznan, Gniezno and Gdansk. This division was legalised through a treaty between Prussia and Russia in 1793. In Grodno, the kingdom�s last parliamentary assembly was forced to legalise the final matter of affairs.

Even though Rzeczpospolita was still powerless, an intellectual and armed resistance was forming all over the country. Tadeusz Kosciuszko proclaimed a general rebellion on the main square of Krakow on the 24th of March in 1794, also the year when he abolished serfdom.

1795. Third Division
The rebellion proclaimed by Kosciuszko, however, arrived too late, and in 1795, the third and final division became a fact.� Kosciuszko's heroic but unprofessional army only lasted for 6 months. The rebellion was suppressed violently and the remaining land was split up completely. The Prussian border was shifted up to the east beyond Warsaw. The remaining regions near Vilnius as well as those in the north and the south were handed over to Russia. Austria took control of the areas near Krakow and Lublin. Krakow, however, remained a free and independent town until 1846. The king was forced to resign and was brought to Saint Petersburg where he died 3 years later. Almost immediately, the serfdom was introduced again all over the country.

A lot of Poles and Lithuanians went into voluntary exile. In France, Napoleon Bonaparte came into conflict with Austria. A lot of exiles therefore enlisted into the French army. During this time, the present Polish National Anthem was written, starting with the sentence: "Poland is not lost yet!".

1806-1812. After Napoleon�s victory on Prussia, Dabrowski marched into Warsaw as the liberator. But Napoleon only allowed for a Grand Duchy of Warsaw under French rule. Six years later, 1n 1812, Napoleon and his armed forces, re-enforced by 100.000 Poles and Lithuanians marched of to fight the Russians and their Tsar Alexander I. The Polish and Lithuanian soldiers were massacred during these terrible battles. Napoleon�s army went down as well as all hope for Poland and Lithuania.

In 1815, the Congress of Vienna restored more or less the situation as it was before Napoleon�s rule.

Krakow remained an independent town until after a rebellion � in 1846,� it fell under Austrian rule. In 1848, the abolition of serfdom was re-instated in Austria. In this country, where two nationalities (the Austrians and Hungarians) were already living together, a third nationality (the Poles) also acquired certain self-government in 1868. In the annexed Polish territories (Galicia), Polish was the national language and was also used in education as well as at the University of Krakow and Lwow and in the church. Through this, the Polish national feeling was able to survive until the 20th century. Famous persons from this time and region were Jan Matejko, the painter, and Kraszewski, Prus and Sienkiewicz, all writers.

In the regions taken over by Germany, all non-German cultures were suppressed thoroughly. In 1828, serfdom was abolished again. The Prussian province of Posen enjoyed the special status of Grand Duchy until 1850.

A small part of the originally Lithuanian territory, Lithuania Minor, southwards from the Nemunas river and its cities Tilsit and Ragnit (at the present time called Sovjetsk and Neman), was also taken over by Prussia. In the beginning, the Lithuanian language and culture were able to survive. But when Bismarck arrived and the German nationalism started to grow, every reference to the Lithuanian language or culture became forbidden. This Germination went on until the Second World War.

A part of the Polish-Lithuanian territory occupied by Russia (consisting of Warsaw without Vilnius) was now transformed into a kingdom where the Tsar carried out all royal duties. Therefore, Poland only existed on paper. Moscow took all decisions and all administrative jobs were assigned to Russians.

Under the rule of Alexander I, a relatively tolerant Tsar, there was a brief revival of the economy and culture. In 1817, the University of Warsaw was founded. But when in 1825, Tsar Nicolas I succeeded the throne, a more severe regime and russification followed.

All sorts of events in Western Europe (e.g. a separatist rebellion of the French minority in the Netherlands, leading to the separation of the present Belgian territory) inspired the Tsar to re-enforce his army and so a lot of Poles were forced to enlist. This led to a general uproar in 1830 that spread as far as Wilno where Emilja Plater led it. After the repression of the rebellion, the University of Wilno was closed and the constitution of Congress-Poland was suspended.

A large wave of emigration started. The musician Frederick Chopin and the writers Adam Mickiewicz, Julius Slowacki, Krasinski and the generals Dembinski, Bem and also Adam Czartoryski were amongst the famous emigrants. In Western Europe, they kept the Polish problem in the political spotlights and where possible, they dedicated themselves to support any conflict against Austria and Prussia (e.g. the Italian battle for independence, the Hungarian rebellion against Austria, the uproar in Poznan against Prussia, �etc.).

In 1861, the serfdom was also abolished in Russia. The increase in freedom of movement and social life, which resulted out of this abolition, quickly led to enormous tensions. The "final discharge" was an explosive situation leading to a rebellion that went on for one-and-a-half year. A preliminary government was formed under Romuald Traugutt�s rule. The rebellion, however, failed and in 1864 Traugutt and the other members of the preliminary government were hanged in Warsaw.

In the years to come, the serious repression, the Russification and censure forced four to five million citizens to emigrate to North America. "Congress-Poland" was finished and the all the schools as well as the University of Warsaw were closed. Polish and Lithuanian as well as the Latin alphabet, were forbidden and public book burning took place in Warsaw and Vilnius.

As a result of this repression, the intellectual interests in the Lithuanian language, culture and tradition revived. In 1883 in Lithuania Minor, a region under Prussian rule, Jonas Basanavicius started publishing "The Dawn", a cultural and political magazine, in Lithuanian.

Josef Pilsudski, a member of the Polish-Lithuanian nobility, was raised in the Russian part of Poland. After the attempt on the Tsar�s life in 1887, he was banned to Siberia, although it was his brother (together with Lenin�s brother) who participated in the attack.

The petty bourgeoisie formed the Union of the National Democrats, which were no longer opposed against the Russian occupation but which did fight against the German western culture.

The underground resistance consisted of socialists, which Pilsudski joined when he returned from exile. Their goal in life was the recognition of an independent Poland. The nationalist fraction of the socialist party supported this Polish independence. They were able to call upon Marx, Engels and even Lenin.

According to the party�s internationalists represented by Rosa Luxemburg, the social battle should not be fought between nationalities but between social classes all over the world. They did not care for an independent Poland. The "Luxemburg group" developed into the Polish communist party between the two World Wars.

In 1905, Russia lost the war against Japan. As a result of the commotion, Tsar Nicolas II was forced to accept a constitution and elections to form a parliament (Doema). The regime became more relaxed. Polish and Lithuanian language were again allowed in education, press and social life. But the unrest and terror did not cease.

Also in Austria-Hungary and in Germany, there were strong "centrifugal forces" at work. The disagreements between the three superpowers grew stronger. The large empires were no longer stable. In Galicia (Austria-Hungary) Josef Pilsudski founded the so-called shooter-clubs, which were in fact regiments of a future Polish legion. He clearly prepared himself for the events to come. He was not afraid of using terrorist actions against the Russian institutions. According to him, Russia was their biggest enemy, so he took side with Austria, which 'in silence' gave him some freedom.

On the eve of the First World War, Russia as well as Germany tried to win the favours of the Poles. This led to a lot of promises granting more autonomy. Poland, however, was no longer urged to accept these promises. Finally, Germany and Austria recognised the Polish independence (only the Russian part) in 1916. Without guarantees Pilsudski refused his co-operation. After refusing the oath of allegiance to the German Emperor, he was captured and taken to prisoner.

World War I. � The Resurrection

The death struggle of the three vast empires ended in the First World War with Poland as battlefield. A lot of Polish emigrants joined the army of General Haller. As a result of the political vacuum, formed at the end of this war, several smaller and larger nations such as Poland, Lithuania, White Russia and the Ukraine seized the opportunity to become independent again. These nations once belonged to the Polish-Lithuanian kingdom. But after a hundred and twenty years of separation and occupation they went their own way.

Josef Pilsudski was released and he proclaimed the Polish independence. He had, without any doubt, the approaching reunification of the old Polish-Lithuanian kingdom on his mind. After the Austrian-Hungarian split up, Galicia nearly fell automatically into his hands, whereas Poznan returned to Poland as a result of a rebellion of the Polish inhabitants. In 1919 the treaty of Versailles restored the western Polish borders of 1772.

In Russia, Lenin seized the power and laid the foundations for a new communist autarchy, called the Russian Federation and later on extended to the Union of Soviet Republics (Soviet-Union). He was also thinking of re-conquering all the regions that once belonged to the Russian Empire. So in 1920 he sent the Russian army under the command of General Toechatsjewski to the West. He had already chosen the members of the government to be (led by Drzerzynski, who not long ago formed the feared military police Tcheka by order of Lenin) for the future People's Republic of Poland, which he intended to form. The Ukraine, White Russia and Lithuania were not able to oppose. After their recently re-gained freedom in 1918, they had neither the time nor the means to form a solid and armed government.

In the regions that were occupied by Austria before the war, Pilsudski did succeed in forming a well-armed underground Polish legion, which stopped the Soviet march. In the Belgian village of Spa they were already negotiating a cease-fire, when Pilsudski, Haller and Sikorski suddenly stroke back hard and inflicted a crushing defeat upon the Russian armed forces. As a result, a peace treaty was signed at Riga in 1921, proclaiming Poland, Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia to be recognised independent nations.

After the revival of Lithuanian language and culture,� Lithuania was not interested in a re-instatement of the former Polish-Lithuanian Kingdom (contrary to Poland). This had led to several clashes between the Polish army and the Lithuanian 'nationalistic' brigades. But Pilsudski absolutely wanted the city of Vilnius, his native town, to be part of Poland. A small fancy of a great man? In order not to violate any treaty, he sent general Zeligowski and his free-corps to Vilnius. Supported by the not insignificant local Polish inhabitants, a coup was organised and the independent Republic of Central-Lithuania was proclaimed. In 1922 it joined Poland. This led to the 18-years lasting 'cold war' between Poland and Lithuania.

In a period of five years, Poland dismissed eleven governments. The several nationalities, who were able to live together in former Poland, had clearly become strangers to one another after being separated for 200 years. Waves of terrorism proved that the country had become uncontrollable. In order to save his life�s work, Pilsudski seized the power in 1926 and guided his country firmly.

The socialists supported him and he conducted an extensive purification: all enemies of Poland were captured and imprisoned. Amongst them the Polish communists who had always opposed� the Polish independence. Their internment was remarkably their salvation because Stalin lured all non-interned communists to the Soviet Union under false pretences. There they have all been wiped out immediately. The imprisoned ones wil be the founders of the Communist Party after the Second World War (Gomulka).

Pilsudski succeeded in realising some stability and he extended education and industry (steel-industry, coal mines, the harbour of Gdynia). At his death in 1935, the nobleman, the revolutionary, the liberator and dictator was given a funeral that was unprecedented. His body lies in state at the Cathedral on the Wawel but his heart was interred in Wilno (Vilnius) at his own request. On several days during the year, when people commemorate the events leading to the resurrection of Poland, his sarcophagus is still decorated with flowers.

After the war, official communist Poland did not want to know about him. He was mentioned in any history book, except occasionally as a fascist dictator. Since he was buried on holy ground, people could often show they did not agree. Near Krakow there are two man-made hills. The first one is called the Kosciuszko-hill (he was the leader of the rebellion after the second Polish division). The people of Poland called the second hill the Pilsudski-hill. This name only later on became official. The hills pay tribute to the hero of the fall and to the hero of the resurrection.

After the war, Lithuania went its own way, separately from Poland. The Vilnius-Wilno dispute had ruled out any contact between these two historical partners. Lithuanian and not Polish became the official language.� Land reforms were carried out forcing large landowners to sell their land to the state. They were allowed to keep 80 hectares. As a result 45,000 new farmers (previously without any land) were able to get to work and 20,000 farms were extended. Education was developed thoroughly. A lot of teachers and engineers had to be trained in order to handle the on coming industrialisation. After all, the massive emigration had depleted the intellectual (mostly polish speaking) population group. Universities, such as Kaunas, and institutes for agriculture, music, trade, fine arts, medicine and educational science were founded. The port of Klaipeda (Memel), a city of great economical importance, was assigned to Lithuania in 1923.

But Lithuania also seemed hard to govern due to the large number of political parties and opinions. As a result, a nationalist coup brought Antanas Smetona to power in 1926. Some tried to explain it as a fascist coup sympathising with Moscow. But similar to the situation in Poland, it was more a� 'provisionally limited democracy' and probably the only feasible way to leave all these war miseries behind.

The Second World War

In the mean time, Germany as well as the Soviet Union were able to recover from the events of the First World War. Germany consisted of two parts, which were only connected by the sea. Lithuania, Poland and the western free town of Danzig surrounded the eastern part (with Koningsberg).

In 1938 Germany (led by Hitler) forced Lithuania to return the port of Klaipeda (Memel).

Germany claimed Danzig (a free town since the treaty of Versailles) and a passage through Polish territory to connect the two German territories. But Poland refused all demands.

The Soviet Union (Stalin) showed that it rejected the borders agreed in Riga in 1920. When it became clear that Germany was preparing for war, Stalin rejected an alliance with the West and decided to fight on the German side.

Poland started to modernise its army, but was always postponing a general mobilisation at the insistence of England and France. In return, Poland was promised a immediate military attack on Germany from the West within two weeks in case Germany did decide to invade Poland.

In September 1939, Hitler attacked the free town of Danzig and invaded Poland. After two weeks, the Germans surrounded Warsaw but the help promised by the West stayed out. To make matters worse, the Soviet troops attacked the eastern borders at the same time. The Ribbentrop-Molotov alliance revealed its true colours.

For a lot of Russian communists, this treaty was incomprehensible. But the western communists were not bothered by this treaty and opposed against the declaration of war against Germany. Maurice Thorez ('mourir pour Danzig !?') president of the French communists deserted the French army to join the Russian armed forces who invaded Poland alongside Germany.

After four weeks� the fourth Polish division was a fact!� Soviets and Nazis celebrated their great victory by throwing a state banquet at the Kremlin palace and by attending the performance of the 'Swan Lake' play at the Bolsjoi Theatre.

In both Polish regions, a time of deportations and exterminations had come. German occupied Poland was partly annexed by Germany. The other part, called the General Government of Poland, became one extensive slave camp consisting of many extinction camps where millions of people (gypsies, Jude, slaves, �) died a violent death.

The Soviet Union annexed the other Polish regions and Vilnius. The Soviet concentration camps were situated in Siberia and in the arctic regions of the nation. A lot of prisoners did not survive the notorious inhuman marches to these concentration camps. But Wladyslaw Anders did.

In London, General Wladyslaw Sikorski formed a Polish government in exile.

The Polish army and airforce re-organised outside of Poland. They fought on almost every front (France, Narvik in Norway, Monte Cassino in Italy, Tobruk in Africa, the battle of England, and the battle of Arnhem).

The Polish navy was able to escape taking 60 warships (including the submarine "Orzel") with it and participated in more then 650 actions at sea including the Landing at Normandy.

Finally the home front, under the command of Stefan Roweki, got organised underground. When Roweki was arrested and killed, Tadeusz Komorowski succeeded him.

The Ribbentrop-Molotov agreement gave Hitler free play in West Europe, whereas Stalin went his own way in the Baltic Regions and in Finland. In 1940 Stalin invaded Lithuania and organised elections. Due to the poor turnout it was decided to keep the election offices open one day longer. But they did forget, however, to mention this to the Soviet Embassy in London. This embassy then announced one day before the closure of the election offices a victory of the Soviet candidates by 95,51%. This is the starting signal for an unprecedented Sovietisation intensified by deportations and mass-executions. The re-annexation of Vilnius, a very important event for the 'nationalistic' Lithuanians, went by unnoticed.

A Forgotten Odyssey  This site named after a recent documentary film by Jagna Wright and Aneta Naszynska deals with the forgotten tragedy of 1.7 million Polish citizens deported from eastern Poland in 1940-42 to special labour camps in Siberia, Kazakhstan and Soviet Asia.

The circumstances of their odyssey and the tragic history of the Polish citizens under Soviet occupation during the war was hushed up by the Allies during the war to protect the reputation of the Soviet Union, an important ally in the war against the Nazis. Now, 60 years later when the survivors are old and many have died, this tragic story is being rediscovered and publicised by the descendants of the survivors.

� In 1941 Hitler attacked Stalin, his ally. In his turn he occupied East Poland and the Lithuania, as well as White Russia and the Ukraine. He called these territories "Ostland". He almost immediately marched on to Moscow forcing Stalin to seek contact with the Allies. One of the members of the Allies was the Polish government in exile under the command of Wladyslaw Sikorski.

" ... Poland was subjected to two sets of occupiers--Germans and Soviets--and hence saw two quite separate sets of collaborators.  Impartial historians must take this fact into account.  They must avoid the pitfall where most Western historiography flounders by regarding 'collaboration' with the Nazis as despicable and 'cooperation' with the Soviets as desirable.  For moral judgements on collaboration/cooperation can only be made after consideration both of the type of regime involved and the particular circumstances of the collaborators.  From the moral standpoint, voluntary assistance for mass murderers cannot be easily justified in any circumstances." - NormanDavies.